The story is almost elementally simple. At the age of fifteen, the narrator falls in love with a young girl, Saba, who belongs to a significantly upper class than him; her father is one of the chief political agents of the area and a match between the two is unthinkable. The boy courts her at a local wedding but is discovered and punished for it by the girl’s father. In a fit of temper, the boy snatches the switch from his hand and attacks the father. The next day he is picked up by the police, beaten up ruthlessly and locked up in a prison far from his village. In prison he is tortured for fifteen years until one day he’s released suddenly, without any reason. While behind bars, he dreams of the swooping, plunging flight of the swallows in his father’s pomegranate orchard. Then one day he thinks he sees ‘a flutter of the light at the window’. He watches closely and sees ‘a shadow pass, too quick to leave a shape’. Slowly, unbelievingly, he realises that there are swallows here. He feels something: ‘It was joy, and it was the most painful thing I have ever felt, because it reminded me of everything we no longer owned.’ It is unbearable enough to make you turn your eyes away from the page.

He emerges a broken man, literally, a creature so bent and twisted by what has been done to him that he finds it difficult to walk, breathe, eat, drink. He’s discovered, sick and disabled, by a kind man, Abbas, not far from his old home, now no longer belonging to his family, which has disappeared. It is Abbas who slowly nurses him back to some semblance of normality. As he rakes over the events that have brought him to the present moment, he asks what remains of the emotion that has provided him salvation in his darkest hour, his love for Saba; indeed, what is left of the core of his selfhood: ‘The boy I once was is a stranger to me, and sometimes I wonder if terrible experiences are enough to change a person – I mean fundamentally to change a person’s nature – or if they merely subdue it, and it endures there beneath, and will reassert itself in time.’

Written as a kind of gift-book addressed to his beloved Saba, the book remains faithful to its conceit of being penned by a man who is learning the language late in his interrupted life under the tutelage of his saviour, for the prose has a childlike simplicity, indeed innocence, about it. In this, it answers to a corresponding innocence in the narrator. The redemptive force in a book as brutal and bleak as this lies exactly here: that a man whose life goes through as harrowing a process of diminishment as Lear’s can still hold on to such gentleness, such unwavering belief in his love, is a Pascalian wager of faith.

One of the odd effects of the book derives from the oppositional counterpoint between what is being said and how it is being said: the style, pared down to the point of seeming blanched in places, is so simple that it feels like one is dipping one’s feet in a cold, pristine stream after a day’s arduous hike, while the subject matter, savage and excoriating, is the stuff of nightmares.

With the exception of two pages in which the Taliban and 9/11 are glancingly mentioned, Hobbs carefully keeps his fictional world free of political particulars, choosing rather to fashion something with the generality of fable. Towards the end of the book Hobbs acknowledges, with exemplary restraint and subtlety, the growing presence of Islamic fundamentalism in Pakistani society: the world of the narrator, already so precarious and frangible, seems even more threatened. In the immensely affecting final pages, as the metaphorical resonances of the pomegranate orchard sound their plangent music and the possibility of a reunion with Saba recedes further, the narrator finds yet another redemptive strand in the selfless generosity and kindness of Abbas.

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‘Memory is not the opposite of forgetting’, Milan Kundera has remarked, ‘rather, it is a kind of forgetting.’ At times, Julian Barnes’s eleventh novel, The Sense of an Ending, winner of the 2011 Man Booker Prize, seems to be a slightly too exhaustive, and a good deal too heavy-handed, or oversignalled, if you will, an exploration of that thought.

Written from the vantage point of old age, which, it is hinted, are most likely the winter years of the life of Tony Webster, Barnes’s first-person narrator, the short, crisp, precise novel at first fools you into thinking that it’s a meditation on ageing and mortality and the treacherous domain of memory, a sort of wry, dry, appropriately diminutive English variant of the short novels Philip Roth has been producing of late: The Dying Animal, Exit Ghost, Everyman, Indignation, Nemesis. The title itself, a nod to Frank Kermode’s dense critical work, published in 1967, on how fiction attempts to give form to the flux that is time, is more deceptive than it appears. Rereading Kermode’s book nearly twenty years after I first tussled with it as a green undergraduate, I’m so struck by the hinges between Barnes’s novel and the earlier work that it is difficult to escape the thought that Barnes is opening up a conversation with the critical essay. Here is Kermode talking about how literature imposes a false paradigm on time:
“The clock’s ‘tick-tock’ I take to be a model of what we call a plot, an organisation which humanises time by giving it a form; and the interval between ‘tock’ and ‘tick’ represents purely successive, disorganised time of the sort we need to humanise.” Now read the first page of the novel.

Or this:
“We live with such easy assumptions, don’t we? For instance, that memory equals events plus time. But it’s all much odder than this. Who was it said that memory is what we thought we’d forgotten? And it ought to be obvious to us that time doesn’t act as a fixative, rather as a solvent. But it’s not convenient – it’s not useful – to believe this; it doesn’t help us get on with our lives; so we ignore it.”

Or how about the following:
“How often do we tell our own life story? How often do we adjust, embellish, make sly cuts? And the longer life goes on, the fewer are those around to challenge our account, to remind us that our life is not our life, merely the story we have told about our life.”

For a book that weighs in at 150 pages, just, much heavy weather is made of such faux-philosophising; the thoughts are not exactly original. It is these frequent passages that dupe us into thinking that the book is going to be one of those fictional meditations on time, such as Juan Rulfo’s Pedro Páramo, that jiggles the kaleidoscope of reality (and the possibilities of fiction) into a new shape. Not only is it no such thing but it also transpires that these oversignallings serve only to provide a respectable fig-leaf for that old, old friend: a literary mystery story. How English it seems, this commute from the lofty to the pedestrian, masquerading as profound. The mystery narrative has all the right ingredients – the unreliable/forgetful narrator; a suicide; a burnt diary; missing letters; a character who keeps saying to Tony, ‘You just don’t get it at all, do you? You never did’, a club-footed way of indicating to readers that they don’t get it either and that a Revelation is going to come along soon that is going to turn the fictional world upside down for them. (A not entirely irrelevant aside: Barnes has written, under the nom de plume Dan Kavanagh, four crime-fiction novels featuring a detective named Duffy.)

Three friends at school allow the newcomer Adrian to become part of their group. Adrian, they discover, has a sharper mind than theirs and has that quality so utterly rare among the English, of being serious about serious things, although the core of this serious new friend seems to be unknowable and unreachable. Part of this territory Barnes has traversed before, with witty astringency, in his first novel, Metroland. After school, Tony goes to university in Bristol and Adrian to Cambridge. At Bristol, Tony has a brief and rebarbative relationship – although non-relationship would be a more accurate term – with Veronica, who, shortly after their acrimonious breakup, starts going out with Adrian, a fact Tony only discovers when Adrian writes to him to ask him for permission to do so. Tony writes him a facetious card to the effect of ‘Be my guest’ and, later, a more considered, serious letter. He spends a year travelling in the USA then returns home to the news of Adrian’s suicide. From this point onwards Barnes masterfully compresses the events in Tony’s life that are not germane to this particular story – steady job; marriage to Margaret; birth of daughter, Susie; divorce; retirement – to two pages then moves on to Part Two, where the long shadow of the past with Veronica and Adrian falls over Tony’s life again.

A bequest of £500 and some ‘documents’ from the recently-deceased Sarah Ford, Veronica’s mother, whom Tony had met only once, on a weekend visit to Veronica’s family in the brief period they were seeing each other in university, reawakens the past and Tony’s curiosity, not least because the ‘document’, which Tony discovers from the solicitor is Adrian’s diary, has been withheld by Veronica. He doggedly pursues Veronica, whom he hasn’t seen since they split up, into giving them to him. The tension is ratcheted up. Why does Veronica give him only one page of Adrian’s diary? The page contains some pretty dodgy cod-philosophising, arranged like the propositions of a tract on logic to fool readers into thinking that they’re getting Wittgenstein redux. A later elucidation of the symbols used in the page serves only to highlight, unintentionally, the bathos involved in applying analytical philosophy to the events of a private life but more on this later.

Then there is Veronica, already an intensely annoying creature (and surely the character whose actions are the least credible), who does not help her cause, nor Tony’s, by repeatedly stating that he doesn’t get things, that he never did. To substantiate this, she gives him a copy of the serious letter he wrote to Adrian and Veronica shortly after finding out that they were going out. The letter, of which Tony has no memory, comes as a jet of cold water between his eyes. It is gratuitously cruel and petty, and Tony, thinking that this is what drove Adrian over the edge, is afflicted by severe remorse. Another round of determined pursual of the remarkably unyielding Veronica follows, this time to apologise and try to make amends. Nested disclosures follow and I’m going to reveal them because the final twist in the book is the weakest and its great defect. A laconic Veronica, refusing to offer Tony any explanations before, during or afterwards, takes Tony to see a group of what he assumes are care-in-the-community people – people with severe learning difficulties – on a pub outing. One of them, a goofy-looking man of forty but with the mental age of a child, seems especially pleased to see Veronica and calls her Mary. Tony’s persistent questions about who they are, why Veronica has brought him to watch them from her parked car, why the man called her Mary, what their condition is, are all met with steely silence and, finally, ejection from the car.

Tony, determined to find out the truth, follows the group on their next expedition to the pub and talks to their carer. Understanding finally dawns on him: the man who called Veronica Mary is Adrian and Veronica’s son. This causes him much anguish as one of the things he had written in that savage letter was, ‘Part of me hopes you have a child, because I’m a great believer in time’s revenge. But revenge must be on the right people, i.e. you two. … So I don’t wish you that. It would be unjust to inflict on some innocent foetus the prospect of discovering that it was the fruit of your loins, if you’ll excuse the poeticism.’ Be careful of what you wish for, they say; seeing his imprecation embodied like this curdles something in Tony. He writes a heartfelt letter of apology to Veronica again only to be told, yet again, that he still doesn’t get it. So the earlier twist wasn’t the last one, there’s a final turn still to come. In a chance encounter at the same pub some months later, Tony has another conversation with a carer who is minding the same group. It emerges that the disabled man is not Veronica’s son but Adrian’s son with her mother, Sarah. Like pieces in a giant puzzle, everything begins to fall into place for Tony: the goofy man’s condition; the cryptic remarks of Veronica and her taciturnity; Adrian’s suicide; that page from his diary; Sarah Ford’s bequest to Tony, which Veronica had called ‘blood money’.

What doesn’t make sense is the dissonance between the content or exact nature of the illumination and the feelings, indeed the existential crisis, it generates in Tony and, by extension, is supposed to engender in the reader. A man gets his girlfriend’s mother up the duff; the son born to them, at a dangerously late age, is physically and mentally damaged; the man in question kills himself: this may precipitate, if you are the extremely hypersensitive type, as Adrian clearly is, some grave predicament in the culpable man’s life – it’s hardly the stuff of what used to be called la condition humaine – but what are the chances that it induces in this man’s school friend an existential contingency of equal magnitude? For of such proportions it is; no page goes by, particularly in Part Two, when we are not treated to sombre assessments of the Big Things: guilt versus remorse; memory as fiction; the vast human capacity for delusion as a self-protective measure; selfishness that knowledge turns to self-flagellation; the nature of history and time; whether life is a series of accumulations and where responsibility features in it. They are wise, stylish, unpretentious, if predictable, and emerge organically from plot and character, but you wouldn’t expect anything less from a writer of Barnes’s calibre. It is when you stand back and ask yourself what has given rise to such meditations, the disproportionate nature of it can only lead to anticlimax; after all, Tony’s crime, if such it can be called, is of obtuseness and inadvertent insensitivity, venial matters in the grand design of things. It is true that Tony is an unreliable narrator but even here Barnes seems to be lagging behind the lethally effective revivifications of this other hoary old device in fiction that, say, Ishiguro’s novels or Zoe Heller’s Notes on a Scandal have achieved. After all, a lot of Tony’s ignorance is caused by Veronica’s cussed behaviour (but then if she did come clean from the very beginning there would be no novel).

Or is this matter of disproportionality, which has the unfortunate effect of making the book less than the sum of its parts, somehow Tony’s belated internalisation of a kind of intellectual and behavioural rebellion first sounded by Adrian in his first year at university when he baffles his friends and punctures an inalienable aspect of their Englishness by declaring, ‘ “I hate the way the English have of not being serious about being serious. I really hate it.’ ” But to be not only serious about serious things but to also overplay the serious hand to the extent that it brings about an incommensurability between fact and feeling: would that be a liberation from Englishness too?

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The inversion certainly goes towards explaining the minor-work feel that suffuses It’s Fine By Me. Set in Oslo in the hinge between the sixties and the seventies and narrated in the first-person by its teenage protagonist, Audun Sletten, It’s Fine By Me is a restrained tale of rebellion, fortitude and survival, a sounding of most of the themes that Petterson is going to keep returning to, deepening the scope and extent of his meditations, in his future works. We first meet Audun when he joins a mixed-school in Veitvet in Oslo; he refuses to take off his sunglasses indoors, lying to his teacher that he has terrible scars around his eyes. The reason for donning the sunglasses will surface much later in the book. At school, he strikes up a friendship with Arvid Jansen; this is the same Arvid who will become the protagonist of Petterson’s 2008 novel, I Curse The River of Time. The boys are united by a passion for reading – books by Jack London, Hemingway, Eldridge Cleaver, Irving Stone’s biography of London, all put in an appearance – and left-wing activism (Arvid is even a paid-up member of the National Liberation Front) and, later, a tender, understated bond of mutual protectiveness.

While it is hinted that Audun, his sister Kari and their mother have escaped from the shadow of a great threat to the safety of Veitvet, within the first fifteen pages we are told of the tragedy that struck the family after they moved to the city: the death of Audun’s fifteen-year-old brother, Egil, when he drove a Volvo into the River Glomma and drowned. Nearly the entire book takes place in the year after Egil’s death but the complex and dense layering of time that has come to be the structural signature of Petterson’s work, and of which Out Stealing Horses is the finest flowering, begins to germinate here so there is a carefully staggered narration of the damage in the Slettens’ past. But here, again, is the bathos to readers who have read Out Stealing Horses first: the past is nowhere nearly as damagingly awful as it is in the later book; neither is the fractured commuting between various levels of history, memory and the present, done with such seemingly miraculous artistry in Out Stealing Horses, the thing of perfectly-wrought intricacy that it will become in Petterson’s hands a decade on.

What rings out with the clarity of a perfectly-cast bell are other things: to begin with, the dammed rage of an adolescent, the impatience to be done with the transition and become a grown-up overnight. The mandatory accompaniments of brittle swagger and the carefully composed mask of nonchalance are perfectly captured. In the concluding section of the book, Arvid finally calls the bluff on Audun’s mantra, ‘It’s fine by me’, which has been a talisman to protect him from losing face. On the last page, the healing thaw begins as the veneer of perfect control breaks; Audun at last becomes an adult.

Audun leaves school just before finishing to start work in the rotary press section of a printing plant; much against his mother’s wishes, he decides on this, he tells her, in order to help her out with money. A snapshot of working-class life in one of the world’s most successful welfare states, the book is true to its contents by giving its readers the texture and feel of the ‘work’ bit in working-class: the scenes in the publishing factory, with its gallery of larger-than-life characters, are executed with not only a magical attention to detail but also with heart-swelling affection. At a time when the tide in socialist activism seems to have left, making it appear to be peculiarly retro detritus on the shores of history, these sections of the novel about ‘factory floor work’ can be piercingly affecting and nostalgic at the same time.

Humming away behind all this is Audun’s real ambition, one that he keeps well-hidden from the world – to be a writer. In a secluded forest with a view of a long, glittering lake in front of him, Audun tries to put Hemingway’s precept into practice: to write one true sentence. In giving him page after page of clear, glitchless and truthful writing, Petterson has wittily infolded two ambitions within a writer’s power to fulfil a character’s wish. Those long, falling arcs of luminous language are yet to come but the glimmers are all here.

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Set in what appears to be a studiedly timeless Middle East, at once ancient and modern, Habibi tells the story of two slave children, Dodola and Zam, who escape from the flesh-market and build a new life in a marooned barge in the middle of the desert. Dodola, nine years older than Zam, sells herself to passing caravans for food, something Zam, to his horror, witnesses one day. It is a scene that will mark him forever. Dodola is kidnapped again and sold to the harem of the decadent Sultan of Wanatolia, where she becomes his favourite mistress. The separation between Dodola and Zam, something that haunts both of them, carries distinct allegorical overtones of the separation of the soul from God that we find in, say, Sufi mysticism or the Song of Songs. When, years later, they are united, both are marked by some shocking changes, as is the world of environmental waste in which they find themselves, and their attempts to build another life together again founder on the cruelty of the world.

Did Paul Klee have Arabic calligraphy in mind when he observed that drawing was taking a line for a walk? On the evidence of Habibi, Thompson certainly does; the close symbiosis between Western representational art and the extremely stylised centuries-old Oriental tradition, chasing each other in a circle on the pages of his book, can be, at moments, nothing short of explosive. His study and deployment of Arabic calligraphy amazes, and not only in its more straightforward, decorative use but also in its metaphorical collisions with the story. An English-language graphic novel written and drawn by an American that manages to have an Arabic visual feel and responsibly convey some of the spiritual underpinnings of Islamic faith – this would be a memorable achievement at any time but at our particular juncture in history it is nothing short of vital.

Executed with enormous empathy and something that in earlier times would have been called divine inspiration, Habibi is an extraordinary milestone in the world of drawn stories. Who would have thought that black ink could make such complex, soul-filling music?

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But compared with that miraculously beautiful earlier book, in which memory and imagination fused into such a luminous whole, The Cat’s Table arrives stillborn. The first half of the book is taken up exclusively with the events and characters on board; the child’s point of view is not so much a child’s as the adult’s retrospectively constructing it from memory. Michael quickly forms an alliance with two other boys of the same age, Cassius and Ramadhin; the trio is inseparable except that the gentle Ramadhin, because of his weak heart, does not participate in some of the wilder escapades of the other two. The passengers on boards are a pied lot: the wallflowery yet mysterious Miss Lasqueti, who sits drawing, and reading crime paperbacks, which she flings overboard if they don’t engage her interest; a dumb tailor called Gunesekera; Michael’s cousin, the beautiful Emily de Saram, who is headed for Cheltenham Ladies’ College; Mr Daniels, a botanist, who is taking a huge and entire tropical garden, laid out in the hold of the ship, to England; an immensely wealthy man, Hector de Silva, mysteriously bitten by his own dog as a result of a curse, journeying to Harley Street to seek a cure for his hydrophobia; a deaf girl, Asuntha, who is afraid of water; a bawdy, worldly-wise Sicilian musician, Mr Mazappa, acolyte of Sidney Bechet; even a travelling circus, the Jankla Troupe. Towering above everyone is Niemayer, a sinister prisoner, padlocked and chained at his neck, wrists and ankles, who is brought out by guards every evening, when the deck is clear, for his daily airing. The stories of each of these colourful people emerge somewhat inorganically, one after the other, a lot of it in wanly inert narration.

This being an Ondaatje novel, there are some stunning, and slightly incredible, set-pieces, the literary equivalent of special effects: that garden in the bowels of the ship; a film screening on the deck; a spectacular fifty-knot gale, with deluge-like rains, that Cassius and Michael witness tied up to the railings in the Promenade Deck. Even the Orientalism-lite that he usually does so beautifully appears in a pallid version in the ship’s crossing of Aden. Hanging over everything is an air of slackness and dispersion, as if a magnetic core that binds everything into coherence, into direction, is missing. The problem with fiction centred on set-pieces is that, once the novelty value has worn off, the truth left behind in the crucible seems ashier than ever.

About halfway through the book, the adult Michael steps in and the immediacy of the child’s experiences recedes to become more self-consciously memory. The change of focus jars, particularly because the transition, telling the story of the untimely death of Ramadhin at the age of thirty, and Michael’s short, doomed relationship with Ramadhin’s sister, Massi, is strained, weak, unconvincing. A faux-profound preciousness that comes close to camp, never very far in Ondaatje’s fiction, creeps in here and, later, when he is writing about the cautious hearts of self-contained creatures such as Cassius and Michael, both, interestingly, artists. These are old clichés microwaved and served pretty but you do ultimately reach the unheated core.

The gap between what is and what a child or a first-person narrator sees and understands can be explosive in fiction; think of What Maisie Knew or Ishiguro’s novels. Here it simply refuses to fly largely because it requires the adult Michael to keep intervening and piecing together for us the momentous events that are part of the shortfall in the two understandings. ‘Over the years, confusing fragments, lost corners of stories, have a clearer meaning when seen in a new light, a different place.’ But this clarification of all that has evaded a child’s knowledge has the odd effect of making not the adult-child dichotomies but the previous section, the one that is more undilutedly the eleven-year-old’s experiences on Oronsay, become drained of its lifeblood. The revelations have to do with a true illumination of Niemeyer’s story and how several passengers, notably Emily, Asuntha, Miss Lasqueti, and the Jankla Troupe, amongst others, were secret participants in his drama.

This aspect of the book, after it has settled into the change in gear despite the initial jolt, is gripping and succeeds in coaxing to wakefulness the sleeping narrative. The penultimate chapter, ‘Letter to Cassius’, all of one and a half pages, is again plumb in the centre of the kitschy territory Ondaatje falls into when he is peddling ‘truths of the heart’. And yet, as if to remind us what he can do when he is writing authentically, the final chapter, ‘Arrival’, is a compact piece of emotional truthfulness, grave and playful at the same time, beautifully written and moving. Would that all of it were cut from the same cloth.

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It is difficult to give a responsible plot summary of the book as it barely coheres as a novel, instead resembling something closer to an anthropology of the Pawindas. This, oddly enough, becomes the book’s strength; if there is a central character then it is not Tor Baz, the boy who, at the age of four, sees his parents killed in front of him as part of an honour-killing, and who runs like an intermittent thread through woof in most of the chapters of the novel, but the landscape itself. And instead of plot we have a series of short stories, separated significantly in time but united subtly yet tenuously, sometimes through Tor Baz, always through the landscape and its peoples.

There are shocking glimpses into Pashtun codes governing revenge (and hilarious ways of bypassing them) and the internecine warring of the various tribes. We learn about migratory lives, spent in the uplands in summer and the hostile plains in winter, about the sale of women into prostitution in Mian Mandi, the notorious thriving slave market. Instead of foaming at the mouth at the abysmal condition of women’s destinies, Ahmad lets the incidents speak powerfully. On one important level the book is a testament to the fragility of the tribals’ nomadic lives, which ‘had endured for centuries, but … would not last forever. It constituted defiance to certain concepts, which the world was beginning to associate with civilization itself. Concepts such as statehood, citizenship, undivided loyalty to one state; … and the writ of the state as opposed to tribal discipline.’

He is also excellent at digging under the surface of that terrifying term, ‘honour code’, to show us the exact nature of lives lived under its shadow and how communities bound by such medieval and unforgiving codes of honour, tradition and loyalty can appear to be without any principles or morals when the order they are expected to follow, such as national allegiance, fall outside the domain of their traditional understanding. He elucidates for us the rubrics of highly stylised behaviour that obtain in this world; the exchange between Tor Baz and the deputy commissioner in ‘A Kidnapping’ when the former asks circuitously for payment for information that he has come to sell him is a gem of compressed comedy.

Of all the answers that can be returned to the question, ‘What is fiction for?’, a worthy one can be, ‘Taking readers where they’ve never been before’. The greatest strength of The Wandering Falcon is in this ability to transport, to crack open a world and its codes, which have remained unseen and uncomprehended by outsiders, with such economy and clear-eyed compassion.

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From this Stoppardian beginning, the book proceeds through four successive sections, set in 1926, 1967, 1980 and 2008, that cumulatively achieve an intricate, witty, playful meditation on what is now beginning to emerge as one of Hollinghurst’s chief concerns: Englishness. Comedy of manners, investigation of class, changing political and social landscape – all the reliable pleasures that his fiction offers are here in their dense, detailed richness but this time it’s a subtle and secret lens through which he sees them. Read on.

The long second section, ‘Revel’, sounds the end of the already threatened pastoral of the first. Cecil has died in the war (as has George and Daphne’s older brother, Hubert); Daphne, now married to Dudley Valance, Cecil’s younger brother, is the mother of two children, Corinna and Wilfrid; George Sawle, married to Madeleine, is now a retreating, buttoned-up academic, who lives and works in Birmingham. Structured around a huge dinner party, another of those miraculously handled Hollinghurst set-pieces, its chief revelations, amongst many, are the apotheosis of Cecil, largely the doing of his adoring mother, and the terrifyingly fragile personality of Dudley: a bitter, angry, cruel bully, forever overshadowed by the myth of his more famous brother. (We’ll learn in a later section, through excerpts from his second book, Black Flowers, exactly what Dudley made of this burden.) The implicit moral commentary on the casual cruelty of the braying classes, something Hollinghurst has already wrought to perfection in The Line of Beauty, enriches the music. Threaded through all this is the greater matter of George’s memories of his own relationship with Cecil, now locked up in him forever.

It will take someone from a different generation, Paul Bryant, introduced in the third section when he is in his early twenties, and featuring centrally in the fourth, to interview three octogenarians – George; a very reluctant Daphne; and Jonah Trickett, the servant-boy in ‘Two Acres’ when Cecil came to visit – to assemble the jigsaw pieces for his revisionist biography of Cecil and hypothesise about the poet in a way we know is closer to the truth than anyone else in the novel can know or acknowledge. Cecil, by now, is firmly established in the English canon as a minor First World War Poet; “a less neurotic – and less talented—epigone of [Rupert] Brooke”, Hollinghurst inserts in Paul Fussell’s 1975 classic, The Great War and Modern Memory. Daphne, the veteran of four marriages, now well into her eighties and looked after by Wilfrid, proves a particularly ungiving interviewee. Reasonable speculation about the paternity of several members of Daphne’s huge extended family yields up some surprises. The literary trope that provides the book with its scaffolding is a heightened and sustained version of dramatic irony; readers are let in on the true nature of events in the opening section, “ ‘Two Acres’ ”, which characters across future generations then try to piece together without ever arriving at a truth that is unclouded by speculation. These repeated future attempts at the reconstruction of the events of the pastoral provide the novel with its epistemological dynamo.

Hollinghurst moves characters between background and foreground in different sections, meticulously picking up figures, information, ideas strewn earlier to shine a different light on both past and present: the technique of staggered information, always a mainstay of narrative, has been fashioned into something altogether more transformative, more pointed. It is woven with stupendous deftness, its internal assonances making a complex, comprehensive harmony. But evolution is not just something that unfolds forward in time. As Lewis Carroll reminded us, ‘It’s a poor sort of memory that only works backwards’; the timed-release information in the novel changes present and past and is itself changed in the act of understanding.

It is in the short final section that the climax of this art occurs, felicitously enough in the domain of book-collecting, in keeping with the book’s immersive engagement with texts (books, letters, reviews, annotations) and the already always approximate nature of textual representations. Of all the impeccably weighted secrets and surprises in the book, this, which revives Cecil, of course, and a minor figure from Section I, is the most unexpected and returns the book, in a graceful circle, to its beginnings, giving to it a magnificent coherence in its meditation on the slippages between lived life and its written or recollected versions. And crucially in this culminating repeated chord, sounded throughout the book, the nested secrets find an answering correlate in the ideological underpinning of the book – the way homosexuality and homosexual lives have been forced to remain secret throughout history until the gradual liberalisation of Britain via Wolfenden (1957), Leo Abse’s Bill (1967), New Labour. This is the ordering principle he has brought to bear on his canvas of a century of English history.

With this book, it becomes clear how unified Hollinghurst’s aesthetic has been so far. And aesthetics, always a matter of ideology, points to the fiercely yet subtly political heart of the book: in a daring act of appropriation he has interpolated within a history of textual ellipses, lacunae and silences a secret history of homosexuality, of what can and cannot be articulated at different historical junctures.

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‘After all, we make ourselves according to the ideas we have of our possibilities’, remarks Salim. Each time I come to A Bend in the River, I seem to read a new book. At times, it is a book about the tension between ‘being’ and becoming’, played out on the bass and treble clefs of the individual and the global; at others, about the silent, patient rage of history; about how free, if at all, one can be of history and its burdens. It is, ultimately, a meditation about the genre that subsumes all others, history, of which we are subjects and to which we are subjected (to paraphrase Foucault). It is wholly in accord with the book that the two great historians of empire, Gibbon and Mommsen, should merit multiple references. The prose is pared down, unobtrusive, and the deceptively simple sentences can wield a surgical knife at the flick of a comma.

The structure of the book – moving from the peripheries to the centre, geographically and metaphorically – reminds me of Cocteau’s words, ‘Un homme profond ne monte pas, il s’enfonce’. The profundity of the novel lies exactly in this depth of enquiry into the biggest question: what is one’s place in the world and how does one fit into it? Any other novel asking these questions would likely spin them into ‘around-the-house-and-in-the-yard’ tales of love and redemption. Naipaul uses them to achieve nothing short of an archaeology of the destiny of nations and peoples. No one has parsed with such nuance and such ferocious clarity the implosion of a nation, the complex web of causes behind it and the groups of peoples caught up in that seismic unravelling. He has shown us harsh, intractable truths, which have not agreed with the ideologies of the chattering liberal-relativists and the politically correct police force of the ‘po-co’ industry. Their fashionable and confected rage against him is, to paraphrase another writer, the rage of Caliban looking at his face in the mirror. History has proved Naipaul right so far. He taught two generations of writers not just how to write – that any careful craftsman can teach you – but also, more crucially and rarely, how to look unflinchingly at things and not turn one’s gaze away.

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Nick Hayes’s The Rime of the Modern Mariner, a rewriting of Coleridge’s poem, is a work of sustained labour and, often, a thing of soaring beauty. The mariner in Hayes’s tale tells of his spell stuck in the North Pacific Gyre, the scene of extreme environmental degradation and a shocking picture of what man has done to the planet and its inhabitants. Saved from death and haunted by what he has seen, he roams the land, telling his cautionary tale to anyone who will listen. How successful Hayes’s polemic is will depend on how much indulgence you have for lines such as, ‘So I turned around frustrated/And looked across the sea/And saw we were surrounded by a wash of polythene./Swathes of polystyrene/Bobbed with tonnes of neoprene/And polymethyl methacrylate stretched across the scene.’ Using a limited palette of blues (and black and white, of course), Hayes makes his artwork look like woodcuts, refracting Eric Gill at times, at times the Arts and Crafts school.

Daniel Clowes, the reigning king of delicate misanthropy, is back with yet another coruscating tale of self-doubt, self-loathing and the possibility, or otherwise, of finding love in Mister Wonderful. No title ever bore the dark weight of such irony. Clowes, now indisputably one of the finest chroniclers of excruciated American masculinity, pegs his latest work on the hook of blind date and scrutinises the minefield of relationships from the undivided point of view of an unattractive, broke, newly-redundant, middle-aged man with an unsuccessful marriage and six years of being single behind him. Marshall, almost stood up on the date, realises, to his utter incredulity, when she does turn up, over an hour late, that Natalie is young, intelligent and gorgeous. The evening progresses from dinner, through a mugging, to a party where the unravelling, always present in the scenes, appears onstage. And yet, after the climactic devastation, in equal parts hilarious and dismaying, hope for redemption is held out. Dense with interiority, surgical in its precision with emotions, Mister Wonderful is yet another of Clowes’s poems of losers and outsiders.

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What a strange book this is: wildly original, creatively rambling (a compliment), barely coherent in structure; a book like no other that has sprung ex nihilo from the dauntingly erudite and slightly crazy (compliment again) mind of its author. The subtitle of Elif Batuman’s The Possessed may lead you to believe that it is about the abiding giants of Russian literature – Puskhin, Tolstoy, Chekhov, Dostoevsky et al – yet it is no such thing, or only tangentially about them. Those tangents themselves are unexpected, mad and left-field. An example: a chapter on Tolstoy is actually about the International Tolstoy Conference on the author’s estate, Yasnaya Polyana, where distinctly unhinged and idiosyncratic academics present uproariously recherché and sometimes downright ridiculous papers and Batuman herself an absurd one on an extremely far-fetched conspiracy theory about Tolstoy’s death. The antics of the somewhat demented academics culminate with an event involving incontinence and refusal to part with soiled underwear on a bus journey to Chekhov’s house, Melikhovo. Rib-breakingly hilarious, yes, as if we have strayed into an absurdist farce, but also quite clever for it smuggles in an entertaining potted biography of Tolstoy, the relationship between Chekhov and Tolstoy, and information about a little-known Tolstoy play called The Living Corpse.

Throughout The Possessed, Batuman, a ‘Russianist’ at Stanford and now a member of the comparative literature faculty there, comes to things at a tilt, looking at them through glasses designed by a madman. The result is the funniest book I’ve read in a very long time: its deadpan, dry humour and its accumulation of absurdities will leave you helplessly rolling on your floor with laughter. After an introduction that outlines her reasons for pursuing literary studies over an MFA in Creative Writing – she wants (or perhaps that should be ‘wanted’ now) to write a novel – she launches into the circus that is academia through the events leading to and during a conference in Stanford on Isaac Babel, the author of the Red Cavalry stories, who was killed in 1941 in one of Stalin’s purges. Genuine illumination about Babel’s life and writings runs in counterpoint to the madcap capers of some insane people on both sides of the academic-layperson divide. It is like watching an Ionesco play written by the illegitimate love-child of Louis Theroux and Anne Fadiman.

The Possessed doesn’t so much crack open the giant edifice of Russian literature to show you the gleaming jewels of new meaning inside as reach for different meanings, not only in literature but also in the fiercely complicated ways books relate to and touch life, through that much-hallowed strategy in the humanities – an investigation of the peripheral. This is nowhere more marked than in the three intermittent chapters that provide the book with its spine, ‘Summer in Samarkand’. Staying at the home of a woman called Gulya in Samarkand, Batuman gamely attempts to learn the Uzbek language – tutored by a philosophy graduate student called Muzaffar whose speciality is the Marburg school of neo-Kantians (no, me neither) – in an effort to arrive at a new understanding of Russian from the margins of the Eastern Turkic languages spoken in countries which used to be part of the USSR. But a personal quest impels her too: being of Turkish origin, she had wanted to reconcile her genetic being, as it were, with her intellectual passion for the Uzbek language is related to both Turkish and Russian. She concludes, in a moment of sadness, that no such reconciliation is possible but the trajectory of the education gives the book some of its most blazingly funny incidents and, characteristically, a gemlike nugget of knowledge or revelation on each page. While you’re weeping with laughter at, say, the consistently bizarre and outlandish pronouncements of Dilorom, Batuman’s Old Uzbek literature tutor, or the comic descriptions, steeped in bathos and a kind of baffled incredulity, of Uzbek literature, you also end up wiser about what the Soviets did to the Uzbek language, about Pushkin’s Turkish travelogue, Tamerlane, Genghis Khan, Alisher Navoi (the Uzbek Shakespeare), Uzbek bread … if you think these are outside the domain of your interests, think again for Batuman will keep you both gripped and laughing as she takes you through the tour. You emerge both delighted and educated: this book is perfectly Horatian in marrying the dulce and the utile the poet defined as the defining criterion of art.

But if there is an absurdist, even Dadaist, basso continuo running under the music of the book, making much of it appear a bit mad and a bit too loosely structured, there is method in that madness. Take the last chapter, titled ‘The Possessed’ (at last!), which deals with Dostoevsky’s Demons (also translated as The Possessed). Here Batuman brings such utterly disparate things together – the eponymous Dostoevsky novel; a visit to Florence, where Dostoevsky finished The Idiot; her obsessive on-off relationship with a charismatic and deranged Croatian fellow-graduate student at Stanford called Matej – that the very contiguity, unimagined before, yields a new set of meanings. The glue binding all these seemingly unrelated things is an influential 1961 book by René Girard, Desire, Deceit and the Novel: Self and Other in Literary Structure. Recondite? Au contraire, it is a deeply personal envoi to what has been, on one important level, a personal book, bringing together, through a Girardian reading of Stavrogin, the mysterious and destructively magnetic central figure of Demons, her own life as a literary scholar and academic-in-training, her private life, and her thesis of academic scholarship as a form of madness. Scattered along the way, almost casually, are revelatory interpretations of some key texts of Russian literature: Chekhov’s story “Black Monk”; the troubled intersection between Demons and The Idiot.

Ranging across California, Hungary, Turkey, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Russia, Italy, The Possessed then turns out to be a picaresque, a grand journey (the word ‘adventure’ in the subtitle is chosen mindfully) undertaken to unlock the answers literature holds and, like all great journeys, adds to the sum total of your life by bringing to it a kind of happiness you didn’t know could be offered by books.

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